Referencing has two functions:
Plagiarism is a very serious offence and carries with it severe penalties. To avoid any slip-up, make sure, as you read for your essay, that you make a note of the relevant details of all the books, journals, webpages and other sources you consult. All the sources you use for the essay, whether you've quoted from them directly or not, should be listed in your bibliography. Bibliographies have a separate section on this website. This section provides information on referencing within your text.

Central and European studies recognises two systems of referencing:
Choose ONE system and stick to it. Inconsistent referencing is unprofessional and likely to upset your marker.

Footnotes system: footnotes are indicated in your text by a superscript number after the final punctuation at the end of the sentence, or after the relevant passage if there is more than one quotation or paraphrase in a sentence (this will be rare).

The corresponding footnote is placed at the bottom of the page.

The advantage of this system is that the reference and footnote appear on the same page.


If the same source is used more than once in an essay, use the full reference for the first appearance and a shortened title for all subsequent appearances.


Below are examples of the footnote system in operation for books, chapters in edited books, newspapers, journals,the internet, youtube. Please follow this pattern.

Private property was abolished and grain requisitioned from the peasants.1
It was claimed that a community of women 'has existed almost from time immemorial'2 yet a
coherent women's movement, i.e. one worthy to be called a movement rather than simply the actions of individuals, was difficult to organise.3
Hungary was suffering from a 'crisis of democracy'.4

Smaller parties developed, including a 'right-wing movement for a better Hungary' known as Jobbik.5

Russia is using young women as spies.6
Taking over previously state run assets was seen as legitimate?7
This accorded with the needs of the state rather than individual needs.8


They asked 'must it first pass through the same process of dissolution as constitutes the historical evolution of the west?' 9
It could equally be seen as a response to civil war.10
More than 427,000 votes were cast for Jobbik.11
'Hungary belongs to the Hungarians'.12
According to him, she was a 'fully signed up Russian agent'.13
According to some, it was piracy thinly disguised as entrepreneurship.14


The corresponding footnotes (including short titles) would be formatted like this:

1 E. H. Carr, The Russian Revolution from Lenin to Stalin 1917-1929, (London: Macmillan Press, 1997), p.24
2 K. Marx and F. Engels, The Communist Manifesto, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992)
3 G. Browning, 'The zhensovety revisted', in M. Buckley (ed.) Perestroika and Soviet Women, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, p.80
4 P. Kerko, K. Szabados and A. Juhasz, 'Resurgence of the Far Right in Hungary', 28 October 2009, http://www.riskandforecast.com/post/hungary/reasons-behind-the-resurgence-of-the-far-right-in-hungary-_307.html, consulted on 4 April 2010
5
Jobbik 2009 EU election campaign, 21 May 2009, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6LhoA_tmdZI
6 The Sunday Times, 27 March 2011, p12
7 V. Volkov, V. 'Violent Entrepreneurship in Post-Communist Russia', Europe-Asia Studies, Volume 51, No. 5, July 1999, 450-466
8 Carr, The Russian Revolution, p.43
9 Marx & Engels, Communist Manifesto, p.43
10 Buckley, p.81
11 Kerko et al., 'Resurgence of Far Right', introductory paragraph
12 Jobbik, p.1

13 Sunday Times, 27 March 2011
14 Volkov, 'Violent Entrepreneurship'

For the corresponding entries in the bibliography, please go to the bibliography section of this website, and for more information, consult your course handbook.

Author/date system (also known as the Harvard system)

In this system, the author, year of publication and page (unless you're referencing an idea that runs through the entire source) are integrated into your text in brackets. The full reference is placed in the bibliography (see the bibliography section of this website for the correct formatting of the bibliographical entries). Below are author/date style references for the examples used in the footnotes system above, together with patterns for the citing of more than one reference and an internet site. In the author/date system, there is no short title - first and subsequent references to works use the same format.

Private property was abolished and grain requisitioned from the peasants (Carr 1997: 24).

It was claimed that a community of women 'has existed almost from time immemorial' (Marx & Engels 1992: 6) yet a
coherent women's movement, i.e. one worthy to be called a movement rather than simply the actions of individuals, was difficult to organise (Browning 1992: 80).

Hungary was suffering from a 'crisis of democracy' (Kerko et al. 2009).


Smaller parties developed, including a 'right-wing movement for a better Hungary' known as Jobbik (Jobbik 2009).


Russia is using young women as spies (Sunday Times 2011).

On the basis of ILO methodology statistics reported by the Central Bank of Russia, there were 7 million unemployed in 2000 (www.cbr.ru).

Russian women have developed flexible survival strategies (Kiblitskaya 2000; Bridger et al. 1996).

Lenin observed that 'you cannot draw the asses into politics without drawing women into politics as well' (Lenin 1977: 85, cited in Buckley 1989: 25)

It was piracy thinly disguised as entrepreneurship (Volkov 1999: 453).